Easy Stepbystep for Air Head Marine Toilet

Type of toilet that treats human excreta by a biological process chosen composting

Composting toilet
Composting toilet at Activism Festival 2010 in the mountains outside Jerusalem
Position in sanitation chain	User interface, collection/treatment (on-site)[i]
Awarding level	Household, neighborhood[1]
Management level	Household, public, shared (well-nigh common is household level)[1]
Inputs	Feces, urine, organics, dry cleansing materials[i]
Outputs	Compost, effluent[1]
Types	Ho-hum composting (or moldering) toilets, agile composters (self-contained), vermifilter toilets
Environmental concerns	None[one]

A composting toilet is a type of dry toilet that treats human waste past a biological procedure called composting. This process leads to the decomposition of organic affair and turns human waste matter into compost-similar material. Composting is carried out by microorganisms (mainly bacteria and fungi) nether controlled aerobic conditions.^[2] Most composting toilets utilise no water for flushing and are therefore called "dry out toilets".

In many composting toilet designs, a carbon additive such equally sawdust, coconut coir, or peat moss is added after each utilize. This practice creates air pockets in the human waste to promote aerobic decomposition. This besides improves the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio and reduces potential aroma. Virtually composting toilet systems rely on mesophilic composting. Longer memory time in the composting chamber also facilitates pathogen die-off. The end production can also be moved to a secondary system – unremarkably some other composting step – to let more fourth dimension for mesophilic composting to further reduce pathogens.

Composting toilets, together with the secondary composting pace, produce a humus-like end production that tin can be used to enrich soil if local regulations allow this. Some composting toilets take urine diversion systems in the toilet basin to collect the urine separately and control excess wet. A vermifilter toilet is a composting toilet with flushing water where earthworms are used to promote decomposition to compost.

Composting toilets practice not require a connexion to septic tanks or sewer systems different flush toilets.^[two] Mutual applications include national parks, remote holiday cottages, ecotourism resorts, off-grid homes and rural areas in developing countries.

Terminology [edit]

Schematic of the composting chamber which is located below the toilet seat^[2]

The term "composting toilet" is used quite loosely, and its meaning varies by country. For instance, in Germany and Scandinavian countries, composting ever refers to a predominantly aerobic process. This aerobic composting may accept identify with an increase in temperature due to microbial action, or without a temperature increment in the example of slow composting or common cold composting. If earth worms are used (vermicomposting) then at that place is besides no increase in temperature.

Composting toilets differ from pit latrines and arborloos, which use less controlled decomposition and may not protect groundwater from nutrient or pathogen contamination or provide optimal nutrient recycling. They also differ from urine-diverting dry out toilets (UDDTs) where pathogen reduction is achieved through dehydration (also known by the more precise term "desiccation") and where the carrion collection vault is kept equally dry as possible. Composting toilets aim to have a certain degree of moisture in the composting chamber.

Composting toilets can be used to implement an ecological sanitation approach for resource recovery, and some people call their composting toilet designs "ecosan toilets" for that reason. However, this is non recommended as the two terms (i.due east. composting and ecosan) are not identical.^{[3] [iv]}

Composting toilets have also been chosen "sawdust toilets", which can be advisable if the amount of aerobic composting taking place in the toilet'due south container is very express.^[5] The "Clivus multrum" is a type of composting toilet which has a large composting chamber below the toilet seat and also receives undigested organic textile to increase the carbon to nitrogen ratio. Alternatives with smaller composting chambers are called "self-independent composting toilets" since the composting chamber is part of the toilet unit itself.

Applications [edit]

This is the pedestal for a split-organisation composting toilet where collection/handling chambers are located below the bathroom floor.

Inexpensive do-it-yourself compost toilet at Dial Firm, Essex, England, utilizing an old desk-bound as the toilet unit.

Public composting toilet at a highway balance facility in Sweden

Composting toilets can be suitable in areas such as a rural area or a park that lacks a suitable water supply, sewers and sewage handling. They can likewise help increase the resilience of existing sanitation systems in the face of possible natural disasters such as climate change, earthquakes or tsunami. Composting toilets tin can reduce or possibly eliminate the need for a septic tank system to reduce environmental footprint (specially when used in conjunction with an on-site greywater treatment arrangement).

These types of toilets can exist used for resource recovery past reusing sanitized carrion and urine equally fertilizer and soil conditioner for gardening or ornamental activities.

Nuts [edit]

Components and use [edit]

A composting toilet consists of two elements: a place to sit or squat and a collection/composting unit.^[3] The composting unit of measurement consists of four primary parts:^[ii]

• storage or composting chamber
• a ventilation unit to ensure that the degradation process in the toilet is predominantly aerobic and to vent odorous gases
• a leachate collection or urine diversion system to remove excess liquid
• an access door for extracting the compost

Many composting toilets collect urine in the same chamber as feces, thus they do not divert urine. Adding small amounts of water that is used for anal cleansing is no problem for the composting toilet to handle.

Some composting toilets divert urine (and h2o used for anal washing) to prevent the creation of anaerobic weather that can upshot from over saturation of the compost, which leads to odors and vector issues. This usually requires all users to utilise the toilet in a seated position. Offering a waterless urinal in addition to the toilet can help keep backlog amounts of urine out of the composting chamber. Alternatively, in rural areas, men and boys may exist encouraged just to find a tree.

Construction [edit]

The composting chamber can be synthetic above or below ground level. Information technology can be within a structure or include a split superstructure.

A drainage arrangement removes leachate. Otherwise, backlog moisture can cause anaerobic atmospheric condition and impede decomposition. Urine diversion tin can meliorate compost quality, since urine contains large amounts of ammonia that inhibits microbiological action.^[6]

Composting toilets profoundly reduce human waste material volumes through psychrophilic, thermophilic or mesophilic composting. Keeping the composting chamber insulated and warm protects the composting process from slowing due to low temperatures.

Odorous gases [edit]

The following gases may exist emitted during the composting process that takes place in composting toilets: hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), ammonia, nitrous oxide (North₂O) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).^[7] These gases can potentially lead to complaints nearly odours. Some methane may too be nowadays, but it is not odorous.

Pathogen removal [edit]

Waste product-derived compost recycles fecal nutrients, but it can carry and spread pathogens if the process of reuse of waste is not done properly. Pathogen destruction rates in composting toilets are unremarkably low, particularly helminth eggs, such equally Ascaris eggs.^[5] This carries the take a chance of spreading disease if a proper arrangement management is not in place. Compost from human waste processed nether only mesophilic conditions or taken directly from the compost sleeping accommodation is not prophylactic for food production.^[8] High temperatures or long composting times are required to kill helminth eggs, the hardiest of all pathogens. Helminth infections are common in many developing countries.

In thermophilic composting bacteria that thrive at temperatures of xl–60 °C (104–140 °F) oxidize (interruption down) waste matter into its components, some of which are consumed in the procedure, reducing volume and eliminating potential pathogens. To destroy pathogens, thermophilic composting must oestrus the compost pile sufficiently, or enough time (1–2 years) must elapse since fresh material was added that biological activity has had the same pathogen removal effect.

One guideline claims that pathogen levels are reduced to a condom level by thermophilic composting at temperatures of 55 °C for at least ii weeks or at 60 °C for one calendar week.^[iii] An culling guideline claims that complete pathogen destruction may exist achieved already if the entire compost heap reaches a temperature of 62 °C (144 °F) for one hour, fifty °C (122 °F) for one day, 46 °C (115 °F) for one calendar week or 43 °C (109 °F) for one month,^{[half dozen]} although others regard this as overly optimistic.^[3]

Design considerations [edit]

Composting toilet with a seal in the lid in Germany

Environmental factors [edit]

Four main factors affect the decomposition procedure:^[6]

• Sufficient oxygen is necessary for aerobic composting
• Moisture content from 45 to 70 percent (heuristically, "the compost should feel damp to the bear upon, with only a driblet or two of water expelled when tightly squeezed in the hand".^[3])
• Temperature between 40 °C (104 °F) and 50 °C (122 °F), which is achieved through proper chamber dimensioning and possibly active mixing
• Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C:Northward) of 25:i

Additives and bulking fabric [edit]

Homo waste material and food waste practice not provide optimum weather for composting. Usually the h2o and nitrogen content is besides high, particularly when urine is mixed with feces. Additives or "bulking cloth", such as wood fries, bark chips, sawdust, shredded dry leaves, ash and pieces of paper can absorb moisture. The additives amend pile aeration and increase the carbon to nitrogen ratio.^[3] Bulking material too covers feces and reduces insect access. Absent sufficient bulking material, the material may get too compact and form impermeable layers, which leads to anaerobic conditions and scent.^[three]

Leachate management [edit]

Leachate removal controls moisture levels, which is necessary to ensure rapid, aerobic composting. Some commercial units include a urine-separator or urine-diverting system and/or a drain at the lesser of the composter for this purpose.

Aeration and mixing [edit]

Microbial action also requires oxygen, typically from the air. Commercial systems provide ventilation that moves air from the bath, through the waste container, and out a vertical pipe, venting above the roof. This air motion (via convection or fan forced) passes carbon dioxide and odors.

Some units require manual methods for periodic aeration of the solid mass such as rotating the composting sleeping accommodation or pulling an "aerator rake" through the mass.

Comparisons with other types of toilets [edit]

Pit latrines [edit]

Composting toilets convert carrion into a dry, odorless fabric which is very dissimilar to the moisture fecal sludge produced in pit latrines which has to be taken care of through a fecal sludge direction system. Composting toilets do not cause groundwater pollution due to their safe containment of carrion in to a higher place-ground vaults compared to pit latrines, assuasive composting toilets to be sited in locations where pit-based systems are not appropriate.

Composting toilets accept higher capital costs than pit latrines, merely lower lifecycle costs. They require more than involvement by the user than the "drop and forget" approach of pit latrines.

Flush toilets [edit]

Unlike flush toilets, composting toilets do not require a sewerage arrangement and exercise not mix flushing water with urine and feces. They require more involvement by the user than the "affluent and forget" arroyo of flush toilets continued to sewage treatment plants.

Urine-diverting dry toilets [edit]

Composting toilets, although similar to and sharing many advantages and disadvantages with urine-diverting dry out toilets (UDDT), are more than circuitous and require more maintenance to keep a consistent and relatively high moisture content. Some composting toilets are designed with urine diversion.

Types [edit]

External composting sleeping accommodation of a composting toilet at a house in French republic

Commercial units and construct-it-yourself systems are available.^[9] Variations include number of composting vaults, removable vault, urine diversion and active mixing/aeration.^[3]

Slow composting (or moldering) toilets [edit]

Near composting toilets employ slow composting which is also chosen "common cold composting". The compost heap is built up footstep past step over time.

The finished terminate production from "slow" composting toilets ("moldering toilets" or "moldering privies" in the United states of america), is generally not gratuitous of pathogens. World Health Arrangement Guidelines from 2006 offer a framework for safe reuse of waste, using a multiple barrier approach.^[10]

Slow composting toilets employ a passive approach. Mutual applications involve modest and often seasonal use, such as remote trail networks. They are typically designed such that the materials deposited tin can be isolated from the operational role. The toilet can too be airtight to let further mesophilic composting.^[11] Slow composting toilets rely on long retention times for pathogen reduction and for decomposition of waste or on the combination of time and/or the add-on of red wriggler worms for vermi-composting. Worms can be introduced to advance composting. Some jurisdictions of the Us consider these worms as invasive species.^[10]

Agile composters (cocky-contained) [edit]

"Cocky-contained" composting toilets compost in a container within the toilet unit of measurement. They are slightly larger than a flush toilet, only use roughly the same flooring space. Some units apply fans for aeration, and optionally, heating elements to maintain optimum temperatures to hasten the composting process and to evaporate urine and other wet. Operators of composting toilets commonly add together a small corporeality of absorbent carbon material (such every bit untreated sawdust, coconut coir, or peat moss) later each apply to create air pockets to encourage aerobic processing, to absorb liquid and to create an odor barrier. This condiment is sometimes referred to as "bulking amanuensis". Some owner-operators use microbial "starter" cultures to ensure composting bacteria are in the process, although this is not critical.

Vermifilter toilet [edit]

A vermifilter toilet is a composting toilet with flushing water where earthworms are used to promote decomposition to compost. It can be continued to a low-flush or a micro-flush toilet which uses about 500 millilitres (17 US fl oz) per use. Solids accrue on the surface of the filter bed while liquid drains through the filter medium and is discharged from the reactor. The solids (feces and toilet paper) are aerobically digested by aerobic bacteria and composting earthworms into castings (humus), thereby significantly reducing the volume of organic material.^[12]

Other [edit]

Some units use gyre-away containers fitted with aerators, while others use sloped-bottom tanks.

Maintenance [edit]

Maintenance is critical to ensure proper functioning, including odor prevention. Maintenance tasks include: cleaning, servicing technical components such as fans and removal of compost, leachate and urine. Urine removal is only required for those types of composting toilets using urine diversion.

Once composting is complete (or earlier), the compost must exist removed from the unit. How ofttimes this occurs is a function of container size, usage and composting conditions, such as temperature.^[3] Active, hot composting may require months, while passive, cold composting may require years. Properly managed units yield output volumes of about ten% of inputs.

Uses of compost [edit]

Finished compost from a composting toilet ready for application as soil comeback in Kiel-Hassee, Germany

The material from composting toilets is a humus-similar cloth, which tin be suitable every bit a soil amendment for agriculture. Compost from residential composting toilets can be used in domestic gardens, and this is the master such utilize.

Enriching soil with compost adds substantial nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, carbon and calcium. In this regard compost is equivalent to many fertilizers and manures purchased in garden stores. Compost from composting toilets has a higher nutrient availability than the dried feces that effect from a urine-diverting dry out toilet.^[3]

Urine is typically nowadays, although some is lost via leaching and evaporation. Urine can contain up to 90 percent of the residual nitrogen, upwards to fifty percent of the phosphorus, and upwards to 70 per centum of the potassium.^[13]

Compost derived from these toilets has in principle the aforementioned uses as compost derived from other organic waste products, such every bit sewage sludge or municipal organic waste. However, users of waste matter-derived compost must consider the chance of pathogens.

Pharmaceutical residues [edit]

Waste product-derived compost may contain prescription pharmaceuticals. Such residues are also present in conventional sewage treatment effluent. This could contaminate groundwater. Among the medications that take been found in groundwater in contempo years are antibiotics, antidepressants, blood thinners, ACE inhibitors, calcium-channel blockers, digoxin, estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, Ibuprofen, caffeine, carbamazepine, fibrates and cholesterol-reducing medications.^[fourteen] Between 30% and 95% of pharmaceuticals medications are excreted past the homo body. Medications that are lipophilic (dissolved in fats) are more likely to reach groundwater by leaching from fecal wastes. Sewage treatment plants remove an average of lx% of these medications.^[15] The percentage of medications degraded during composting of waste has non yet been reported.

History [edit]

In the late 19th century in adult countries, some inventors, scientists and public wellness officials supported the employ of "dry out world closets", a blazon of dry toilet with similarities to composting toilets, although the collection vessel for the human waste was non designed to compost.^[xvi]

Society and civilisation [edit]

Regulations [edit]

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) [edit]

In 2016, the International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) published the standard "Activities relating to drinking water and wastewater services — Guidelines for the management of bones on-site domestic wastewater services".^[17] The standard is meant to be used in conjunction with ISO 24511.^[18] It deals with toilets (including composting toilets) and toilet waste. The guidelines are applicable to basic wastewater systems and include the complete domestic wastewater cycle, such as planning, usability, operation and maintenance, disposal, reuse and wellness.

International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials [edit]

The International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) is a plumbing and mechanical code structure adopted past many developed countries. Information technology recently proposed an addition to its "Green Plumbing Mechanical Lawmaking Supplement" that, "...outlines performance criteria for site congenital composting toilets with and without urine diversion and manufactured composting toilets."^[19] If adopted, this composting and urine diversion toilet code (the first of its kind in the United States) will appear in the 2015 edition of the Dark-green Supplement to the Compatible Plumbing Lawmaking.^{[twenty] [21]}

United States [edit]

No performance standards for composting toilets are universally accepted in the US. 7 jurisdictions in North America^[22] use American National Standard/NSF International Standard ANSI/NSF 41-1998: Non-Liquid Saturated Treatment Systems. An updated version was published in 2011.^[23] Systems might also exist listed with the Canadian Standards Association, cETL-US, and other standards programs.

Regarding byproduct regulation, several US states permit disposal of solids from composting toilets (usually a distinction between different types of dry toilets is non fabricated) by burial, with varying or no minimum depth mandates (as trivial as 6 inches). For instance:

• Massachusetts: "Residuals from the composting toilet system must be cached on-site and covered with a minimum of half-dozen inches of make clean compacted soil.^[24] Massachusetts requires that whatsoever liquids produced but, "non recycled through the toilet [itself be] either discharged through a greywater system on the property that includes a septic tank and soil assimilation system, or removed past a licensed septage hauler."^[24]
• Oregon: "Humus from composting toilets may exist used around ornamental shrubs, flowers, copse, or fruit copse and shall be cached nether at least twelve inches of soil cover."^[25]
• Rhode Isle: "Solids produced by culling toilets may be buried on site," while, "residuals shall not exist applied to nutrient crops."^[26]
• Virginia: "All materials removed from a composting privy shall be cached," and "compost material shall non be placed in vegetable gardens or on the ground surface."^[27]
• Vermont: "Byproducts may be disposed via "...shallow burial in a location approved by the Bureau that meets the minimum site weather condition [required for an onsite septic tank-based sanitation organization]."^[28]
• Washington: models its extensive regulations for what it refers to every bit "waterless toilets" on the federal regulations that govern sewage sludge.^[29]

The Environmental Protection Agency has no jurisdiction over the byproducts of a dry toilet equally long every bit waste product are non referred to as "fertilizer" (but instead only a material that is being disposed of). Federal rule 503, known colloquially as the "EPA Biosolids rule" or the "EPA sludge rule" applies only to fertilizer. Thus, individual states regulate composting toilets.^{[30] [31]}

Frg [edit]

The regulations for composting toilets and other forms of dry toilets in Germany vary from country to state and from 1 application to another (e.g. use in allotment gardens or use in family homes and settlements). In the different states of Deutschland, it is the "Landesbauordnung" (translates to "state civil engineering science regulations") of the respective state that regulates the use of such alternative toilets.^[32] Almost of them stipulate the apply of flush toilets, still there are many exceptions, for case in u.s.a. of Hamburg, Lower Saxony, Bavaria, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Rhineland-Palatinate, Saxony-Anhalt and Thuringia.^[32] These generally make exceptions for the use of composting toilets in homes provided that there are no concerns for public health.

Regulations governing the use of compost and urine from composting toilets is less clear in Germany simply it seems by and large allowed provided it is used on one's ain property and non sold to third parties.^[32]

Examples [edit]

Finland [edit]

Numerous sparsely settled villages in rural areas in Republic of finland are not continued to municipal h2o supply or sewer networks, requiring homeowners to operate their own systems. Individual private wells, i.eastward. shallow dug wells or boreholes in the boulder, are often used for h2o supply, and many homeowners accept opted for composting toilets. In add-on, these toilets are common at holiday homes, often located nearly sensitive h2o bodies. For these reasons, many manufacturers of composting toilets are based in Republic of finland, including Biolan, Ekolet, Kekkilä, Pikkuvihreä and Raita Environment.^{[33] [34]}

Estimates made by leading Finnish composting toilet manufacturers and the Global Dry Toilet Association of Finland provided the following 2014 figures for composting toilet use in Republic of finland:

• About iv% of unmarried-family homes not connected to a public sewer network are equipped with a composting toilet.
• Some 200,000 manufactured composting toilets are idea to serve holiday homes, matched by the number of other dry toilets. The simplest ones are sited in an outhouse.

Germany [edit]

Composting container of "TerraNova" composting toilet, showing open removal sleeping accommodation (boondocks house at the ecological settlement Hamburg-Allermöhe, Germany)

Composting toilets accept been successfully installed in houses with up to four floors.^[3] An estimate from 2008 put the number of composting toilets in households in Frg at 500.^[35] Nigh of these residences are also connected to a sewer organization; the composting toilet was non installed due to a lack of sewer system but for other reasons, mainly because of an "ecological mindset" of the owners.

In Deutschland and Republic of austria, composting toilets and other types of dry out toilets have been installed in single and multi-family houses (eastward.g. Hamburg, Freiburg, Berlin), ecological settlements (e.yard. Hamburg-Allermöhe, Hamburg-Braamwisch, Kiel-Hassee, Bielefeld-Waldquelle, Wien-Gänserndorf) and in public buildings (e.g. Ökohaus Rostock, VHS-Ökostation Stuttgart-Wartberg, public toilets in recreational areas, restaurants and huts in the Alps, firm boats and forest Kindergartens).^[35]

The ecological settlement in Hamburg-Allermöhe has had composting toilets since 1982. The settlement of 36 single-family houses with approximately 140 inhabitants uses composting toilets, rainwater harvesting and constructed wetlands. Composting toilets salve virtually 40 litres of h2o per capita per twenty-four hours compared to a conventional affluent toilet (ten liter per flush), which adds upwardly to 2,044 m³ water savings per yr for the whole settlement.^[36]

United States [edit]

Slow composting toilets have been installed past the Greenish Mountain Order in Vermont's woodlands. They employ multiple vaults (chosen cribs) and a movable building. When one of the vaults fills, the building is moved over an empty vault. The total vault is left untouched for equally long every bit possible (up to three years) before it is emptied. The large surface area and exposure to air currents tin can cause the pile to dry out. To counteract this, signs instruct users to urinate in the toilet.^[37] The club also uses pit latrines and simple bucket toilets with woodchips and external composting and directs users to urinate in the forest to prevent odiferous anaerobic weather.^[38]

Worldwide [edit]

Composting toilets with a large composting container (of the type Clivus Multrum and derivations of it) are popular in US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Sweden. They can be bought and installed as commercial products, equally designs for self builders or equally "design derivatives" which are marketed under various names. Information technology has been estimated that approximately ten,000 such toilets might be in use worldwide.^{[ citation needed ]}

Run into also [edit]

• Sanitation

References [edit]

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2. ^ ^{a b c d} Tilley, E.; Ulrich, L.; Lüthi, C.; Reymond, Ph.; Zurbrügg, C. (2014). Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies - (2d Revised ed.). Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Engineering (Eawag), Duebendorf, Switzerland. p. 72. ISBN978-3-906484-57-0.
3. ^ ^{a b c d e f grand h i j k} Berger, Due west. (2011). Technology review of composting toilets - Basic overview of composting toilets (with or without urine diversion). Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Eschborn, Germany
4. ^ Rieck, C., von Münch, Due east., Hoffmann, H. (2012). Technology review of urine-diverting dry out toilets (UDDTs) - Overview on design, management, maintenance and costs. Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Eschborn, Germany
5. ^ ^{a b} Hill, B. G. (2013). An evaluation of waterless human waste direction systems at North American public remote sites. PhD thesis, Academy of British Columbia (Vancouver), Canada
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8. ^ Stenström, T.A., Seidu, R., Ekane, Due north., Zurbrügg, C. (2011). Microbial exposure and health assessments in sanitation technologies and systems - EcoSanRes Serial, 2011-1. Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI), Stockholm, Sweden, page 88
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23. ^ "PUBLICATIONS - Standards and Criteria - March 21, 2013" (PDF). NSF International. p. iv. Retrieved 24 March 2013. Wastewater Treatment Units … NSF/ANSI 41 – 2011: Not-liquid saturated handling systems (composting toilets) ^{[ permanent dead link ]}
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32. ^ ^{a b c} Lorenz-Ladener, Hrsg. Claudia; Berger, Wolfgang (2005). Kompost-Toiletten: Wege zur sinnvollen Fäkalienentsorgung (1. überarb. u. erw. Aufl. ed.). Staufen im Breisgau: Ökobuch. p. 178. ISBN978-3-936896-16-9.
33. ^ Global Dry out Toilet Association of Finland (2011) Dry Toilet Manufacturers in Finland, Leaflet in English language and Finnish
34. ^ "Global Dry Toilet Association of Finland". Global Dry out Toilet Association of Finland - Company and clan members . Retrieved 15 January 2015.
35. ^ ^{a b} Lorenz-Ladener, Hrsg. Claudia; Berger, Wolfgang (2005). Kompost-Toiletten: Wege zur sinnvollen Fäkalienentsorgung (1. überarb. u. erw. Aufl. ed.). Staufen im Breisgau: Ökobuch. p. 183. ISBN978-3-936896-sixteen-9.
36. ^ Rauschning, G., Berger, W., Ebeling, B., Schöpe, A. (2009). Ecological settlement in Allermöhe Hamburg, Federal republic of germany - Case study of sustainable sanitation projects. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA)
37. ^ Allen, Lee (2013). "Long Trail News: Quarterly of the Green Mount Club, Fall 2013. Article titled: "A Privy is a Privy is a Privy...or is it? To Pee or Non Pee."" (PDF). Dark-green Mount Club. Dark-green Mount Club. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 Feb 2015. Retrieved 31 Jan 2013.
38. ^ Antos-Ketcham, Pete (2013). "Long Trail News: Quarterly of the Greenish Mount Club, Fall 2013. Article titled: "Batch-Bin/Beyond-the-Bin (BTB) Composting Privies"" (PDF). Greenish Mountain Social club. Green Mountain Club. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 February 2015. Retrieved 31 January 2015.

External links [edit]

• Composting toilet description (Sustainable Sanitation and H2o Management Toolbox)
• Composting systems (documents in library of Sustainable Sanitation Brotherhood)
• More photos of composting toilets in Flickr photograph database of Sustainable Sanitation Alliance

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composting_toilet

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